Ericksons Psychosocial Theory

ERICKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY 1. Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory PSY 104-275 ERICKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY 2. Theoretical Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory, PSY 104-274. Erick Erickson was an analyst that was conceived in Germany and got celebrated for his Theory of eight phases of improvement. Erick accepted there were eight persuasive stages in a human’s life. At each stage, an interesting formative assignment faces people with an emergency in which must be settled. As per Erickson the emergency isn't a fiasco, yet a defining moment set apart by both expanded helplessness and upgraded potential.Key Words: psychoanalytic, therapy, Autonomy, Generativity, Stagnation ERICKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY 3. ERICKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY 4. Erik Erikson was conceived in 1902 close to Frankfort, Germany to Danish guardians. Erik ended up in a significant character emergency while growing up. He was a light hair blue eye Jewish kid that thought th at it was hard to concentrate in Jewish sanctuary as a result of his looks. Furthermore, in sentence structure school he was out casted for being Jewish. He likewise considered workmanship and an assortment of dialects during his school years, as opposed to science courses, for example, science and chemistry.He didn't care for the environment that proper tutoring delivered, so as opposed to setting off for college he went around Europe, keeping a journal of his encounters. (Character Theories, Dr c. George Boeree. ) After a time of doing this, he came back to Germany and joined up with workmanship school. Following quite a long while, Erikson started to show workmanship and different subjects to offspring of Americans who had come to Vienna for Freudian preparing. Erick than met a Canadian move educator named Joan Serson who was likewise instructing at the school where he worked. The couple wedded in 1930 and proceeded to have three children.In 1933 he went to the U. S. also, took a showing position at Harvard. Notwithstanding instructing at Harvard he likewise had a private practice in youngster analysis. Later he held showing positions at Yale, San Francisco psychoanalytic, Austin Riggs focus and the middle for cutting edge investigations of conduct Sciences. He distributed various books on his speculations and exploration, including Childhood and Society and The Life Cycle Completed. His book Gandhi's Truth was granted a Pulitzer Prize and a national Book Award. Erick resigned in 1970. He anyway kept on composing, do investigate and incidentally lecture.In 1950 genuine medical issues ERICKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY 5. constrained him into full retirement. Erick kicked the bucket in 1994 at 91 years old. (Character Theories, Dr C. George Boeree. ) Erick Erickson was anyway likely realized most popular for is Psychosocial Theory. Erickson’s hypothesis was one in which eight phases of psychosocial advancement unfurl all through a people lifetime. Each stage comprises of an exceptional formative assignment that stands up to people with an emergency wherein must be confronted. (Santrock, 2008,16) The primary stage, Trust versus Doubt, happens from around birth to one year.Erikson characterized trust as a basic trustfulness of others just as one's very own major feeling dependability. He likewise said that some question is important to figure out how to separate somewhere in the range of genuine and deceptive people. On the off chance that question prevails upon trust in this stage, the youngster will be baffled, pulled back, dubious, and will need fearlessness. (Santrock, 2008,16) The subsequent stage, Autonomy versus Disgrace and Doubt, happens between ages two and three. During this period it is significant that the guardians make a steady air for their kid so it can build up a feeling of discretion without lost self-esteem.In this stage, Erikson said the kid experiences rules, for example, which territories of the house he is permitted to investigate. (Santrock, 2008,16) The third stage, Initiative versus Blame, happens between ages ERICKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY 6. four and five. This is the phase wherein the youngster must discover what sort of individual he/she will be. The youngster builds up an awareness of other's expectations in which the kid expands activity during this period. In the event that the kid is flighty and is caused to feel excessively on edge, at that point they will have awkward blame feelings.Erikson accepted that most blame is immediately made up for by a feeling of achievement. (Santrock, 2008,16) Erikson's fourth stage, Industry versus Mediocrity, happens between six years and adolescence. This is the period where the kid needs to enter the bigger universe of information and work. One of the incredible occasions and impacts of this time is the kid's entrance into school. This is the place he is presented to the innovation of his general public: books, augmentation tabl es, expressions and artworks, maps, magnifying instruments, movies, and tape recorders.However, the learning procedure doesn't just happen in the study hall as indicated by Erikson, yet in addition at home, companion's homes, and in the city. (Santrock, 2008,16) Components of Erikson's earlier four phases add to the fifth stage, Identity versus Character Confusion. This happens during puberty. During this period the personality concern arrives at peak. (Santrock, 2008,16) Erikson's 6th stage, Intimacy versus Separation, happens during youthful adulthood. Closeness with others is conceivable just if a sensibly all around incorporated character rises up out of stage five. The primary worry of Erikson's seventh stage, Generativity vs.Stagnation, is to ERICKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY 7. help the more youthful age in creating and have valuable existences. At the point when the individual feels that he has never really help the cutting edge then they experience stagnation. The last stage, Integrity versus Sadness, happens during late adulthood. This is the time where the individual thinks back and assesses their life. In the event that the past stages have grown appropriately, at that point they will encounter honesty. In the event that the past stages have not created in a positive manner, at that point they will feel despair. (Santrock, 2008,16)Erickson’s model has a few favorable circumstances and disservices to it. One of the points of interest is that it is a decent model to follow in earliest stages and in youth when there is practically zero correspondence being done among kid and guardians. The model sets a â€Å"measuring stick† to a child’s ordinary advancement that a specialist and guardians can use to check whether the youngster is creating bogged down or in front of timetable. This all likewise permits specialists and guardians to conceivably finding a potential mental irregularity or learning inability. Anyway I accept this m odel is acceptable to use to expect just if a kid is healthy.Once a youngster or grown-up is determined to have a psychological instability or the like the model can't be truly utilized any longer. The model additionally has constraints to it. As I referenced in the earlier passage once a kid or grown-up is determined to have a psychological instability the hypothesis can't be extremely just used to a certain extent. Reliant on what sort of realizing incapacity or mental inability the youngster or ERICKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY 8. grown-up may have the individual will be unable to perceive these formative needs that occur all through his or hers life.The grown-up or kid will vigorously rely upon their overseer to either bolster these formative stages for them or the guardian may must be the one that really supplies these necessities and offers the consolation that is expected to person’s stages. The pertinence to society this offers is that it gives us how a sound indi vidual ought to create through life. It is a model for us to follow to know legitimate formative phases of a person from earliest stages to late adulthood. It enables guardians to recognize what is the â€Å"norm† for there kids and if perhaps there is something formatively wrong.In more established grown-ups it likewise encourages us manage our way into later phases of life. It might help individuals who feel that they have not been effective in the public arena feel that they are in the ordinary. They may see that they have created and added to what the ordinary is normal. This paper helped me understand that there was such a model to create formative stages. I understand thinking back to my pre-adulthood years I have hit these stages and recollect managing these issues. It additionally sets me up for what’s ahead and what's in store in later formative stages.Being more ready for my forthcoming stages should make my changes through them a lot simpler. ERICKSONâ€℠¢S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY 9. References Essential of life expectancy advancement, John Santrock, University of Texas at Dallas, distributed 2008 Erickson’s hypothesis of psychosocial improvement, Kendra Cherry, http://brain science. about. com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/psychosocial. htm Simply brain science, Erickson’ hypothesis, Saul McLeod, distributed 2008, refreshed 2013. http://www. simplypsychology. organization/Erik-Erikson. html#sthash. byyb8hC6. dpbs Personality Theories, Dr c. George Boeree. http://webspace. transport. edu/cgboer/erikson. html

''How does the distance from the radius affect the frequency of its Research Proposal

''How does the good ways from the sweep influence the recurrence of its sound'' - Research Proposal Example Sound, similar to every single other wave show different properties. These properties incorporate frequency, period, frequency,speed, plentifulness, force and bearing. Adequacy and commotion allude to a comparable thing. It relies upon how much pressure is finished. Sound waves scatter in the wake of leaving the source. This prompts an outstanding reduction in abundancy. In the event of a retention of the sound waves by the medium, sufficiency diminishes as it goes through it. Sound frequency is the good ways starting with one peak then onto the next. Sound being a pressure wave has its frequency being the separation between the greatest compressions. Sound recurrence alludes to the passing pace of waves at a given point. It is utilized reciprocally with pitch and furthermore note for melodic sounds. In any case, for all frequencies, sound's speed is generally the equivalent. Consequently recurrence proves to be useful in the portrayal of the impacts of the different frequencies. Recurrence and frequency decide the pitch of a sound wave. A sharp stable is in corresopondence with a high recurrence sound wave and the other way around for low pitched sounds. Under ordinary conditions, one impact can watch the Doppler Effect whenever the source's speed moves more slow than the wave's speed. Be that as it may, at whatever point the source's speed is the equivalent or quicker than the wave's speed, the source turns into the leads the waves delivered. When there is a period depiction for different waves a plane produces with because of moving at a similar speed as the wave, it is known as a shorkwave. This likewise occurs if the plane is swifter than the sound's speed. At the point when a supersonic plane passes an obeject, a sonic blast is heard. It occurs because of a heap up of compressional fronts on wave example's conelike edges. This accumulating meddles with each other, creating incredibly high weight zones. These zones then all arrive at the item on the double. There follows rarefaction where the high weight zone is immeidately trailed by lower pressure one, making noisy commotion. Sound speed is predominantly reliant on the medium the wavesare going through. This is typically the material's central property. Physical properties including a sound's speed fluctuate contingent upon the ecological conditions. For example, the speed of soundwaves in however gases is profoundly reliant on the temperature. The vibration of a sound source makes pressure floods of sound.In request to contemplate the impact of good ways from the midpoint of a catch on the recurrence emmitted, the Doppler Effect hypothesis is utilized. As indicated by this hypothesis, there is consistently an adjustment in recurrence and frequency of sound waves and different waves by and large as for separation. It gets its name from Christian Doppler, an Austrian physicist and mathematician. He previously proposed this impact in the year 1842 in his book. Later in 1845, Buys Ballot tried this theory for sound waves. He made an affirmation that the pitch of a

Computer Fraud and Abuse Act Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

PC Fraud and Abuse Act - Essay Example This alludes to the inclusion of the administrative government’s PCs or recommended budgetary bodies in occurrences where the perpetrated wrongdoing is of an interstate nature. To explain the arrangements of the first Act further, dealing in passwords, rebuking administration assaults and malignant dissemination of codes was likewise condemned by the CFAA. The Act likewise experienced a few revisions in an offer to wipe out covers and fill escape clauses somewhere in the range of 1989 and 2008. With models, this paper will scrutinize the real impact of the CFAA: Has it been a triumph or disappointment in forestalling PC extortion and misuse? This inquiry is driven by the dubiousness of the law, which has the capability of presenting it to imperfections and prosecutorial misuse. According to its, the Act can be seen from two points as far as the PCs it covers (Granville, 2003). The secured PCs are alluded to as ensured PCs, and in this sense, hypothetically, a secured PC is cha racterized as one implied for select use by the administration of the United States or by a budgetary organization. It likewise alludes to whatever other PC which utilizes the legislature or budgetary organization is harmfully influenced by lead that comprises an offense. This incorporates PCs not inside the United States, which influence remote or interstate correspondence and business of the United States. ... Since Congress didn't portray plainly what was implied by that, it brings up issues regarding whether investigators will be of the feeling that a violator of terms of administration of a site merits time in prison or not (Jarrett and Bailie, 2010). Would such a sentiment be sensible or unreasonably cruel? Further, does the law need to isolate the manner in which it treats criminal expectations on the Internet that bring about grave mischief to the security of social, community, and monetary establishments based on what is viewed as regular Internet action? In the light of the present scramble for the Internet, officials need to measure the viability of the CFAA and settle on the most proficient method to react to different partners and invested individuals. For example, some remote nations are looking for command over the Internet; influential people and corporate associations need it molded in manners helpful to them while sabotaging national interests; military systems are spying, assaulting and abusing both private and open organizations; and knowledge and law upholding offices are trying to screen and mine it (Jarrett and Bailie, 2010). An examination of these zones will empower legislators to decide the achievement or disappointment of the CFAA up until now, and whether changes are required. In the far reaching case of the Aaron law, it is available to contention whether Aaron Swartz perpetrated a felony by downloading content from JSTOR, a notable chronicle for scholarly records, on which he had a record. After JSTOR directors got mindful of the downloads in 2011, they blocked them and didn't seek after criminal charges.â

Observation And Recomendation Report Of T.G.I.Frid Essay Example For Students

Perception And Recomendation Report Of T.G.I.Frid Essay ays (Spread PAGE) Perceptions AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR T.G.I.FRIDAYS RESTAURANT Arranged for (name) Arranged by (your name) Date Chapter by chapter list Official SUMMARYiii Issue.. 1 BACKGROUND.1 Conversation OF FINDINGS2 Services2 Menu Items..3 Quality..3 Prices4 Atmosphere4 Customer base. ..5 Physical Facilities5 Decor5 Cleanliness5 Format. .6 Convenience.6 Exceptional Offers7 End AND RECOMMENDATION8 Official SUMMARY Forthcoming eating benefactors can feel good about eating at T. G.I.Fridays Restaurant, as appeared by this top to bottom examination directed by . The investigation was approved by . She mentioned a report of perceptions of the café. My decision that T. G.I.Fridays Restaurant doesn't require numerous enhancements, other that somewhat more space and bigger trashcans in the bathroom, depends on information provided by two worker interviews, T.G.I.Fridays menu and site, and perceptions made by Perceptions were made in five zones: (1)Service. The administration at T.G.I.Fridays is neighborly and time adequate. (2)Menu Items. The nature of the food is of an exclusive requirement. There is an enormous choice of various sorts of menu things. The costs are sensible for the part sixes given. (3)Atmosphere. The air is noisy, chattery and energizing. The stylistic layout is fascinating and the customers is assorted. (4)Physical offices. The eatery is perfect and advantageous. The design is a little confined yet at the same time agreeable. (5)Special highlights. The uncommon highlights are useful when deciding to feast with T.G.I. Fridays. Based on these discoveries, it is suggested that a couple of tables are expelled from the feasting territory and the stopping is better characterized. Perceptions OF T.G.I.FRIDAYS RESTAURANT Reason This investigation was intended to mention an objective fact on an eatery with an accentuation on objectivity and proof. In particular, I will survey T.G.I.Fridays in all parts of the café including its administration, menu and air. Foundation T.G. I.Fridays is an easygoing feasting chain that has been visited by a great many individuals since 1965. The main Fridays, which is the means by which it is alluded to by the greater part of its workers and demographic, was situated at First Avenue and 63rd Street in New York City. It highlighted red and white stripes, a blue outside and its name-T.G.I. Fridays. Inside were wooden floors, Tiffany lights, bowed wood seats and striped decorative spreads. The bar territory, with its metal rails and recolored glass, likewise upgraded the environmental factors. For Fridays inside style, a full time antique picker did broad venturing out to sales and swap meets. Memorabilia must be real and, if conceivable, novel to the territory where the new eatery would be found. The New York Fridays delighted in a quick achievement. First year incomes totaled $1 million. As per Newsweek and The Saturday Evening Post, the opening of T.G.I.Fridays showed the development of the singles age. By1975 there were ten T. G.I.Fridays eateries in eight states. Presently there are more than 575 of every 49 nations. (www.tgifridays. com) Conversation OF FINDINGS The consequences of this exploration demonstrate the characteristics of the T.G.I.Fridays café on East Henrietta Road in Henrietta, New York. The exploration discoveries here fall into seven classifications: (an) administration, (b) menu things, (c) costs, (d) air and stylistic theme, (e) customer base, (f) physical offices, and (g) extraordinary highlights. Administration When moving toward the café, the entryway is opened by a spg, grinning individuals greeter. Barbara, who is one herself, expressed that the grinning individuals greeters are one of a kind to T.G.I.Fridays. It was additionally said that there is barely ever a hold up time to be situated more than 15 or 20 minutes. This is even the situation during supper on a Friday or Saturday night. The main special cases to this time are in the instances of enormous gatherings with in excess of six individuals. This was completely seen as right. Food is served from 11:00 a.m. until 1:00 a.m. Application Architecture and Process Design Essay and beverages until 2:00 a.m. (Barbara) In the wake of being situated the servers rush to present themselves and oblige you. They come directly over to you in only a few minutes to get drink and starter orders. They are auspicious, coming back with the beverages requested in only a few minutes. Instantly they inquire as to whether a choice has been made. In the event that no choice has been made, the server is glad to return in around 5 minutes to take the request. Subsequent to taking the request, the servers will top off beverages at whatever point fundamental and inquire as to whether anything is required. There arent numerous odds for them to visit, be that as it may, in light of the fact that the food goes to your table in around twenty minutes. At which time they will again fill any beverages and .

Indias Cast System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Indias Cast System - Essay Example It is connected to an idea called the four varnas, which will be canvassed in more detail underneath. The position framework occurs from an intrinsic (something that a being is brought into the world with) otherworldly spot known to man dependent on these four varnas. The motivation behind this paper is to explore and assess the standing framework in India and it’s connections to Hinduism to give a general review of this significant part of Indian life. The paper will likewise investigate how significant this framework is for some Indians, and the progressions that are being made to the framework because of worldwide political change. Outline of the Caste System To completely comprehend the station arrangement of India, the particular thought of various profound viewpoints is required. Maybe the most significant piece of the standing framework is based around the focal idea of the four varnas, which are huge classifications. The first of these (and the most exceptionally respe cted) is the Brahmin class. The standard interpretation for this rank is academic, speaking to the significant job that this station plays in strict and philosophical occupations inside India (Fuller, 1979). The following most exceptionally respected station is the Kshatriya, speaking to what could be viewed as a military world class or warrior class. The reason for this rank in Hindu society is to ensure society (Fuller, 1979). The third most significant class as indicated by the varnas is the Vaishya class. This is the peaceful or cultivating class, with a large number of the occupations of its individuals spinning around domesticated animals and harvest cultivating. This rank may likewise take up exchange vocations (Chandra, 2005). At long last, Shudra people are viewed as a component of the hireling class. Individuals naturally introduced to this position may normally hope to have employments serving the individuals from the other three ranks (Chandra, 2005). There is likewise a last gathering which may not be viewed as a major aspect of the customary standing framework, for people who are not individuals from some other gathering. These individuals are known as the untouchables and can involve probably the least great situations in the public arena and can be disregarded by individuals from any position (Pruthi, 2004). There are likewise further divisions inside every position which are known as jatis (Singh, 2005). These can change between Indian locales, however relatives will in general stay inside one jati (which directs occupation). It is additionally conventional for jati individuals to wed inside a gathering and carry on an occupation ancestry, likewise with the a lot more extensive position framework depicted above (Singh, 2005). Every jati will fit with other ‘tribes’ into the more broad standing framework plot above. These gatherings will in general be a lot littler yet at the same time affectionate in nature, which has driven a few people to consider the jati the ‘building blocks’ of Indian culture (Pruthi, 2004). It tends to be genuinely hard to move between jatis, similarly as with standings, since intermarriage and correspondence between the gatherings isn't commonly energized (Pruthi, 2004). It might likewise be hard for an individual from one jati to get familiar with the exchange of another, again denying development between the gatherings (Pruthi, 2004). It is feasible for a jati in general to improve societal position by staying away from untouchables and terrible work and taking on progressively religious ways, (for example, following the Hindu acts of vegetarianism, for instance). History of the Caste System There is some discussion about the beginning of the position framework. As it has such close connections to Hinduism, it bodes well to assess the

How to Write the Introduction of a Research Paper

How to Write the Introduction of a Research PaperWriting the introduction of a research paper is not always easy. If you have just started a course or are trying to improve on your writing skills, there are a few things that you should know before you begin. Learning how to write the introduction of a research paper is something that can help you get through the process of learning how to write research papers.First, make sure that you take the time to understand what a research paper really is. A research paper is a brief overview of a certain topic that is done in order to gain an outline. After that outline is set, it is easy to start writing. It is also something that can be helpful when a student has trouble with an area of their paper.Second, do not be afraid to ask questions. If you think that you need to find out something before you write the introduction of a research paper, it is a good idea to look online for a suggestion. Do not be afraid to ask questions; this is how yo u can be sure that you understand everything that you are about to write.Finally, take the time to learn a bit about writing a paper before you get started. If you are afraid that you will not be able to learn anything new, then do not worry. There are many books that can help you out as you go through your writing process.One final note: if you have been spending a lot of time writing a paper and suddenly quit, it may be because you have not taken the time to figure out how to write the introduction of a research paper. You may be losing a lot of time writing, and possibly money. There are several other steps that you can take in order to make sure that you write your paper effectively. This is another reason why it is important to ask questions.Writing a research paper is a great way to get your feet wet in the writing world. It can help you learn how to write a paper and help you learn more about what you are doing as well. Taking the time to learn how to write a research paper i s something that can help you learn how to do it correctly and give you plenty of practice.When you are looking for a good introduction to a research paper, you need to take the time to find one that works well for you. It is important to make sure that you are getting a good introduction so that it will be easier to read later on. Taking the time to read the introduction will help you decide if you want to continue the paper or try to learn another topic.Writing a research paper can be intimidating, but it is also an easy task. The best way to start is to take the time to understand what a research paper is and how to write it. Doing this can make your paper easier to read later on and will help you get more out of it.

Business-it alignment - Free Essay Example

BUSINESS-IT ALIGNMENT (BITA) The relationship between Business strategy and IT strategy and the influence of organisation culture on this strategic alignment in Saudi firms will form the basis of the research in this research. As such, the literature reviewed here will survey major research and practice in the business-IT strategic alignment domain for the purpose of deriving a research framework, or model, of business-IT strategic alignment that will unite the key principles contained within the literature. The intention is to develop a model simple enough for application that will provide a practical tool both for management and IT practitioners. 2.1 BITA A CHRONLOGICAL HISTORY Study on the strategic alignment concept will soon be reaching a quarter of a decades worth of knowledge. Henderson Sifonis (1988) began studying this notion during the late 80s when alignment emerged from a focus on strategic business planning and long-range IT planning where IT plans were created in support of corporate strategies Chan Reich (2007, p. 298). Nevertheless, strategic alignment has retained its interest and value in the business and IT communities and is still a popular topic today for organisations; perhaps even more so as technological advancement continues to dominate the exchange of information. Not surprisingly, its evolution has followed closely the developmental progress of IT itself which began with the operational era continuing through the re-engineering viewpoint and the new economy as figure 2.1 illustrates: The initial phase, the operational era, was concerned primarily with the operations that an organisation performed and focused on setting up mai nframes, managing networks of PCs, and backing up organisational data. IT provided the nuts and bolts to facilitate automation of back-office functions through the development of software and had only a supportive role. Strategic alignment was thus viewed merely as a supporting act for every-day operations with its software applications. The second phase, re-engineering, arose from the increasing trend toward dependency on the automation of business processes by IT which not only offered back-office functions support but the promise of total automation within an organization as a whole through IT software applications. At this stage, IT was still viewed only as a supportive tool with no representation in the business end of an organisation. For example, business managers expressed their system needs which the IT department embraced and went on to develop and deploy a new software application in isolation. These early strategic alignment projects were not always successful. It wa s discovered that the development of software (with embedded processes) for automation of a business function was no guarantee of improvement over its earlier manual operation, indeed it could end up being more time-consuming and therefore less efficient as operators were not necessarily au fait with the application. There was not a full understanding of what IT could do and how it could enhance a companys position beyond speeding up communications and thereby creating more ‘time for production or interfacing. A ‘Them and Us atmosphere prevailed with the ‘techies in a separate world to the mangers or drivers of the business, neither fully understanding the others needs [elements that are also considered further in the organisation culture aspect of this research and dealt with in the next chapter]. In the 1990s, Baets study of European banks (Baets, 1996) supported the findings of Vitale and colleagues ten years earlier (Vitale et al., 1986) that knowledge of IT ha d to be on a par with expert business knowledge for the two to create any comprehension and thereby effective application of strategic alignment in organisations. The third phase, new economy, saw IT commanding greater importance and status as organisations began to emerge that were embracing e-commerce. The demands of the new e-business projects required involvement of IT representatives in their management and strategic planning. The implementation of Internet technologies to augment business processes for productivity or profitability improvements brought the role of IT into the spotlight, according it recognition and strategic responsibility. Along with the newly elevated status of the old IT department there was a greater familiarity with technology and its capabilities and the prejudice that had previously scorned the ‘nerds dissipated somewhat as managers and personnel became more knowledgeable and the IT personnel more essential beyond a lab coat and a screwdriver [ cf: artifacts causing division, Schein (1992) and Trompenaars (1997) in chapter 3]. Despite the current global economic crisis and the demise of the new economy IT continues to assume new responsibilities and organisations have even more need for strategic alignment projects. An IT department in 2010 must manage relations with partners and bear business responsibilities concerned with the development and customisation of software that will improve how a business functions; practice effective project management to control costs and maximise efficiency and ensure that the introduction of any new hardware or software support operations and infrastructure, â€Å" maintaining the crucial corporate data that helps managers throughout the enterprise to make intelligent and informed decisions Hoque (2002, p. 31). Kearns Lederer, (2003) and Seggie et al. (2006) agree that strategic alignment is a means to gain competitive advantage and Sabherwal Chan (2001), Wagner et al. (2005) and Zhou et al. (2008) further add that it improves organisational performance. 2.2 DEFINING BITA Determining a conclusive definition for alignment is as challenging as its function and application. There are many perspectives and multiple definitions including in chronological order: strategic alignment (Henderson and Venkatraman, 1993); harmony (Luftman, 1996); fit (Porter, 1996); bridge (Ciborra, 1997); integration (Weill and Broadbend, 1988); fusion (Smaczny, 2001); IS alignment (Chan et al., 2006; Benbya and McKelvey, 2006) business-IT alignment (Luftman, 2007); and IT alignment (Chan, 2007). It is understandable that there is such diversity as definitions depend on our understanding of language. The semantics involved are precarious because the new technologies are often described in technical terms and applying simplistic synonyms to explain the intention of alignment in the context of business IT in terminology that is understood without associated jargon is very difficult. Overall, the definitions offered, though they have nuances of difference between them, do relate to the improvement of organisational capability through technology. Broadbent and Weills (1993) early definition, purports that it is the degree to which information strategies support, stimulate and/or enable any business strategies. A later definition offered by Reich and Benbasat (1996) asserts much the same but frames it in terms of the missions of the IT and business objectives and plans on both sides. Luftman (2000) was the first to introduce the element of evolution into the definition and argued that it required strength [as the key element] from leadership, senior management and working relationships, combined with a complete understanding of the business and technical environments, fitting prioritisation, mutual trust, and of course, effective communication. Hirschheim and Sabherwals (2001) definition included the idea of a reciprocal arrangement as fundamental to its meaning and stated that alignment was the achieved between strategy and supporting structures that allo wed both IS (information systems) and business to function and communicate responsively each way to one another. Most accepted definitions do highlight the alignment dichotomy described by Kearns and Lederer, (2000), where the argument is that the IS plan ought to align with the business plan (ISP-BP) and vice versa (BP-ISP) the business plan ought to align with the IS plan. Each perspective serves to increase the understanding of IT at organisational level and assist the prioritisation of IT projects. Reich and Benbasat (1996) were protagonists of the ISP-BP model, which they declared signified, IS managements comprehension of the business strategy. Whereas Bensaou and Earl (1998) contrarily preferred the BP-ISP alignment model as they believed it assumed a greater understanding on the part of the business comprehension of the IT aspects and thus the plan and the resources would ally more effectively together as a result of this knowledge, understanding and commitment. These ele ments are believed to be enablers of alignment (Luftman et al., 1999). In the definitions offered some view alignment as a specific happening or event and others regard it is an ongoing process. Duffy (2001) saw BITA as a process of achieving competitive advantage through a developed and sustained business and IT symbiosis. Maes et al. (2000) claimed BITA to be a continuous and continual process that involved management and design sub-processes with conscious and coherent interrelation of all elements and mechanisms within the business/IT relationship offering contribution to the ongoing performance of the organisation. Moodys (2003) definition saw BITA as a form of comprehensive resources management (people/ technology/ outside resources) that provides a set of IT services and capabilities that are in line with the business needs and priorities. And Senn (2003) was assured that each action executed by IT individuals was to focus on the creation and delivery of shareholder/stakeh older value through supporting business operations and/or achieving business goals. 2.3 BITA PERSPECTIVES AND DIMENSIONS With the diversity of definitions offered to explain the meaning of the strategic alignment concept, as outlined in the previous section, there is a need to further explore the differences to discover why there is such variety. Part of the explanation may be that as the concept has evolved it has been closely linked to the evolution of technological capabilities. Attitudes have changed as organisations have adopted new technologies and personnel have become more familiar with their potential and their operation. These dynamics and the evolution of strategic alignment are reflected in the number of conceptualisations and their definitions will be analysed in the context of the differing perspectives afforded to them. BITA with regard to its perception as a strategy, an event, a continuous process, a performance indicator, an assessment tool, a social influence and as an operation will be briefly outlined below to expand on the definitions in the literature from their different dimen sions. 2.3.1 BITA AS A STRATEGY It has been a tradition for literature to refer to Business-IT alignment as ‘strategic alignment. Considering it in these terms frames it as an intellectual notion rather than something more concrete or practical and as such it can be high-jacked to represent whatever strategy suits the organisation that is considering alignment. There is no harm in referencing alignment in this manner for it allows debate and therefore change, essential for evolution and adopting a ‘strategy suitable to the structure, culture and level of alignment required. By referring to it in this way however, the literature suggests that strategic alignment is dependent on the fit between IT strategy and business strategy, and on how the IS plans are established to support such a fit (Teo and King, 1997). Many authors in the strategic alignment field approach alignment purely at the strategic level, e.g. Baets (1992), Broadbent and Weill (1993), Chan et al. (1997), and Luftman (2003). At the core of their conceptualisations is the notion that business strategy itself must first be analysed and only thereafter be used to determine a complementary IT strategy. In this scenario the business strategy is paramount and the IT strategy contribution secondary, it is a means to an end rather than a means in its own right. However, despite the alignment between business strategy and IT strategy where emphasis is laid on defining IS strategy plans (Benbya and Mckelvey, 2006) strategic alignment continues to be problematical in many organisations. Thus, reaching an agreed definition that details IS strategic plans is important for strategic alignment; however, is it not enough on its own for the achievement of such alignment (van der Zee and de Jong, 1999). 2.3.2 STRUCTURAL TOPOLOGY AFFECTING BITA The literature often takes for granted the strategic element of the concept and delves further into its implications for organisations, concentrating on the behaviour and nature of BITA what it does when you introduce it [and also is a strong feature of the organisational culture types discussed in the following chapter]. This depends largely on what type of a structure into which it is introduced. A formal structure, an informal structure or a hybrid structure, each having its own merits and each being capable of effective function when the circumstances and environment are conducive to the choice made (Brown and Magill, 1994). Against their three identified structures, Earl (1989) identified five potentially suitable structures: centralized, business unit, business venture, decentralised, and federal. Tavakolian (1989) found a direct correlation between competitive and conservative strategies within an environment and the corresponding decentralised or centralised IT structures evident in an organisation and this finding is supported to some extent by Bergeron et al. (2001) with the caveat that it is not solely the complexity of structure that impacts performance but that other factors are influential too. Chans (2001) view is that informal structure, â€Å"†¦relationship-based structures that transcend the formal division of labour and coordination of tasks†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Chan, 2001, p67) can be just as effective as formal structure with the human element rather than intellectualised models and processes driving alignment, often with more impact and success than a formal arrangement. Structure, therefore can add a new dimension to the perspective of alignment as it places it in a setting that will impose its own constraints on the practice and execution of alignment exercises and ideals. 2.3.3 BITA AS AN END IN ITSELF For some authors it alignment doesnt seem to ‘do anything rather it is a business unit that lacks the dynamics others see in it. The implication is that it is something that is ‘brought in like an object concrete and physical and recognised by its static end state where some sort of equilibrium is achieved between the IT and business sides in an organisation. In the previous section, some of the definitions only present strategic alignment as an outcome achieved through the employment and adoption of different models, techniques and processes (Ortiz, 2003). Broadbent and Weill (1993), Chan et al. (1997), Luftman (2003) and Reich and Benbasat (1996), also see strategic alignment as something to be arrived at, a destination that is terminated when an optimal situation has been achieved. This may be a misunderstanding of the full meaning as the attitude that having strategic alignment the business married with the technology required for effective fulfillment of objective s cannot stand alone and it would be naà ¯ve to believe that BITA was a panacea for all business problems so perhaps the authors see it as an optimal achievement when all the other factors, or perspectives, also come into play to make BITA a worthwhile ‘thing in itself. 2.3.4 BITA AS A CONTINUING PROCESS If a business is static it will stagnate and if a business wishes to grow, like IT, it must always continue to evolve through a naturally occurring dynamics that are integral to the implementation of policies such as strategic alignment. Baets (1996), Luftman et al. (1999), and Rondinelli (2001) agree that these dynamics require constant monitoring and appropriate adjustment. Therefore, strategic alignment is not something attainable but something constantly in development, as it is variously described by Henderson and Venkatraman (1993), Baets 1996, Maes et al. (2000), Duffy (2001), Moody (2003), and Senn (2004). â€Å"An issue that has remained relatively unchallenged and unquestioned is how to align IT that is relatively fixed once implemented in an organization, with a business strategy and associated information requirements that are constantly in need of adjustment Galliers (2007, p. 228). Even within this perspective there are two schools of thought; the classical school of thought with emphasis on contingency adaptations and the ‘processual approach (Whittington, 1993) that emphasises the importance of addressing internal and power issues, particularly how cultural elements influence the formal elements of rationality and the decision process in strategic alignment and rejects IT as merely an adaptation but gives it greater weight as a resource. Furthermore, practitioners are being advised to adopt a view of strategic alignment as a continual process. In Pearlmans (2004) article advice to CIOs, in summary, is that they should communicate, demonstrate, lead, collaborate, govern and build if they wish to achieve alignment. 2.3.5 BITA FOR PERFORMANCE INDICATION It is the consideration of several authors that strategic alignment is not only a process but also a tool whereby they can reflect on the business value that organisations might possess, or not. In studies analysed the relationship between strategic alignment and competitive advantage or organisational performance were tracked, (Venkatraman, 1989; Sabherwal and Chan, 2001; Kearns and Lederer, 2003; Wagner, 2005; Seggie et al., 2006; Zhou, 2008). Tallon and Kraemer (2003) were responsible for the additional concept of business value being included as an element to the performance indication point of view of strategic alignment and analyse business value by relating it to organisational IT goals and measuring the IT return of investment from a strategic alignment viewpoint. 2.3.6 ASSESSMENT USING BITA In response to the question: `how do organisations know how good their strategic alignment is? different authors have developed Maturity Models (MMs) (de Koning and der Mark, 2002; Duffy, 2001; Luftman, 2003; van der Raadt et al., 2005). MMs describe the development of a specific domain over time. This perspective is in itself a more mature outlook than other perspectives as it has to consider many of the dynamics before being able to construct an effective strategic alignment. Because of the in-built review and evaluation required for this perspective it has to look at all aspects that the alignment may affect. Researchwork and systems are subject to assessment and revision through these maturity models and their monitoring. On the basis of the assessments of those MMs, organisations can fine tune and calibrate their strategic alignment: Identify any alignment-related aspects/processes improvements required to obtain a higher level of strategic alignment maturity. Initiate any change processes to ensure that the identified improvements eventuate. In much the same way, acceptance of the cyclical nature of strategic alignment as posited by Burns (1996) ‘lead-lag model implies assessment in response to intermittent predictable and unpredictable changes as does the ‘punctuated equilibrium model of Sabherwal et al. (2001) where interruptions to stability demand a fresh look at the long term plan and goals of strategic alignment. 2.3.7 BITA AS A SOCIAL INFLUENCE If an organisation intends to work toward achieving strategic alignment it will necessitate communication that will involve negotiation, collaboration and mutual understanding elements not always present a specific organisational structure or culture. This communication can blur the boundaries of traditional or conventional approaches and therefore becomes a driving force behind social attitudes and perceptions. Chan (2002) and Huang and Hu (2007) uphold this view that maintaining effective communication in an organisation will impact on corporate strategic alignment culture. Concord must be developed for effective channels of communication, transparency in the exchange of knowledge and sharing of learning (Hoque, 2002; Daneva and Hu, 2007), and the use of informal communication is just as important a factor for adjustment and control (Mintzberg, 1993; Chan, 2002; vander Raadt et al., 2005), to generate an atmosphere of trust and an effective response to business needs from an IT perspective. Reich and Benbasats (2000) study further confirms that strategic alignment is more likely to succeed when business and IT executives have an [importantly] expressed and [understood] shared common vision of ITs contribution. 2.3.8 BITA AND OPERATIONS Strategic alignment [when it is all-encompassing and embraced by all as part of an organisational culture] necessarily involves organisational issues of communication, structure and, particularly, coordination processes that are operational to the business in specifically performed actions (Wieringa, 2008). Operational strategic alignment consists of aligning the operational activities of IT and business people with each other so that optimal IT support for business requirements is achieved. In this context, Peak and Guynes (2003) put the onus of success on the IT side of the equation, though it does imply some reciprocity in the initial communication of ‘quality requirements and they state that strategic alignment will only be attained when an organisations IT staff can deliver quality information and quality IT products and services to the business side. 2.4 BITA MODELS 2.4.1 MIT90S FRAMEWORK (1991) During the 1980s, research conducted at the world renowned MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) initiated interest in the academic community to the potential of the strategic power of IT. In the attempt to exploit the possibilities revealed in the model from the research it was suggested that radical innovation involving IT investment could carry substantial reward if key elements of strategy, structure, technology, management processes and individuals and their roles were kept in alignment (Morton, 1991). Organisation can be visualised as a set of five forces in dynamic equilibrium subject to external influences from the technological environment and the socio-economic environment. In this view, a core task of general management is to ensure that all five ‘forces (represented by the boxes), can flow without restriction or impediment in order to achieve the organisations goals and objectives. With management at the centre of the model its role is central too. Tho ugh some areas might not necessarily be in direct contact with each other they are connected via the management process which plays the principal role and ensures organisational response to shifts in demands from the external variables. 2.4.2 THE HENDERSON AND VENKATRAMAN STRATEGIC ALIGNMENT MODEL (1993) Henderson Venkatramans (1993) strategic model (Figure 2.3) is a widely used four-part illustration favoured by many researchers and organisations for the assessment of the level of alignment in a company. Each of the four parts [quarters] contain three distinct and individuals elements which, when collectively analysed, can be used to define each quarter operationally. These twelve elements- further expanded in Table 1 are used to establish the level and type of alignment within a corporation (Henderson Venkatraman, 1993; Papp, 1995). Table 1 Components of the Strategic Alignment Model Within the model it can be seen how external influences may affect change on either processes [lower sectors] or strategies [upper sectors]. A vertical link couples the upper and lowers sectors and shows the relationship between strategic fit to accommodate strategy with infrastructure. A horizontal link for functional integration shows how IT strategies must adapt as business strategies c hange, and displays the dependence and required response of each sector upon anothers adaptations particularly in relation to skills and operation. Giving focus to three of the four quarters of the model at a given time can permit a simultaneous address to both strategic fit and functional integration (Papp, 1995; Luftman et al., 1999). The SAM (Strategic Alignment Model) model has proven empirical authenticity and has provided valid conceptual and practical value (Goedvolk et al,. 1997; Avison et al., 2004). Nevertheless, it is subject to confines, eg, the applicability of the SAM model may vary depending on the IT-intensity of an industry and the assumptions expounded might not be relevant to the circumstances (Burn and Szeto, 2000). As mentioned, the model does have recognition and a number of scholars have further elaborated on it (e.g., Luftman et al., 1993). Goedvolk et al.s (1997) extension of the SAM model gave greater focus to technical and architectural attributes. A vison et al.s (2004) addition to the SAM model was able to provide practitioners and academics with further practical ways to attain alignment in their advocacy of examining projects retrospectively to determine alignment. This form of alignment monitoring, can allow pre-emption in a change in strategy and implementation of a new alignment perspective by re-allocation of project resources. The SAM model inspired Maes et al. (2000) to produce a framework that incorporates even more layers pertinent to function and strategy where information providers are separated from the systems providing information in a new information domain representing knowledge, [and exchange of information through] communication and coordination. Their third dimension addresses specific sub-architecture areas. 2.4.3 IS CAPABILITY AND ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE MODEL (2004) Peppard and Wards model (2004) shows IS capability at the core of everything, inherently affecting competencies and emanating an influence on all areas that interrelate [business strategy/business operations/IT operations and services/IS/IT strategy] and impact upon the organisational performance. Such focus on the importance of this core element demonstrates the value IS capabilities can create and is therefore an organisation-wide responsibility that cannot be delegated to the IS function alone (Peppard et al., 2000). Peppard and Ward (2004) later asserted that though an organisation might envisage an IT based innovative strategy, it will be their IS capabilities that permit such a vision to come to fruition. 2.4.4 CO-EVOLUTIONARY IS ALIGNMENT (2006) By 2006 the model suggested by Benbya and McKelvey (2006) through its graphic presentation appears a more fluid representation suggesting, even visually, that there is more of a flow between relationships in alignment. It still addresses the need to analyse relationships between business and IT (horizontal IS alignment) but introduces a need to merge the views at different levels [strategic/operational/individual] of analysis (vertical IS alignment) through shared understanding and communication. The co-evolutionary IS alignment perspective conveys the necessity for mutual adaptation within a dynamic interplay of co-evolving elements. Co-evolution does not necessarily seek harmony between the elements but a respect for their position and the innovation that may result from the circumstances and environments in which they function. 2.5 ASSESSMENT APPROACHES OF BITA In this section MMs (maturity models) are referred to that have been developed for the assessment of BITA. 2.5.1 DUFFYS MM (2001) Duffys (2001) MM is founded on the principle that a dependable, mutually compatible partnership between IT and business executives is elementary in order to achieve a worthwhile BITA. Without this premise there cannot be a successful desired outcome. Accepting that there is a level of interdependence between IT and business objectives, any schism or division between IT and non-IT areas would sabotage any efforts to establish alignment. This model is arranged about a series of key success drivers (the domains: human resources organisation and management/innovation and renewal strategy/IT/business architecture/IT/business partnership/operational excellence/ROI strategy management) which are operationalised in KPIs (key performance indicators) that each contain five contributory factors aspects designed to address explicit and significant questions within the KPI where it is included. The six domains are briefly explained below: Human resources organisation and management. In this domain reference is made to an organisations personnel and emphasis is given to the importance of workforce recruitment, retention and management by an organisation. Innovation and renewal strategy. The focus here is how innovative an organisation is with an emphasis on currency and validity having a bearing upon understanding when renewal is required to processes and capabilities in an organisation. IT/business architecture. This domain is concerned with the relationship and interaction of entities involved in the information and applications in the business environment of an organisation. IT/business partnership. This domain reflects how the recent upgrading of the role of the IT function affects an organisation â€Å"Technology is critical to business success and this co-dependency drives the need for the IT and non-IT executives to pursue a win/win relationship Duffy (2003, p. 4). Operational excellence. This domain deals with the performance outcomes of the organisation. Duffy recognises that operational excellence can only be achieved if an organisation can recognise the value of ideals embedded in learning and partnerships, and can respond to market demands promptly. ROI strategy and management. This domain investigates the importance of the metrics and processes required for efficient and effective financial management within organisations and accepting IT costs and benefits as having parity with business ones. Duffys six domains address the â€Å"IT and non-IT assertion as well as certain strategic elements within an organisation but there are no explicitly stated maturity levels for them. Instead, Duffy merges the six domains of the model into four BITA scenarios where organisations fall into the following categories: â€Å"uneasy alliance†, â€Å"supplier/consumer relationship†, â€Å"co-dependence/grudging respect†, and â€Å"united we succeed, divided we fail†. These laymans terms are loose at best and though intended to be descriptive only serve to confuse in their interpretation. Such scenarios are the maturity levels in the model. 2.5.2 LUFTMANS MM (2003) Luftmans model (2003) was constructed on the basis of practical experience and research into enablers and inhibitors of alignment (Luftman et al, 1999), incorporating reference to various other models [here listed chronologically and not in order of importance or influence]: Nolans stages of growth model (Nolan, 1979), SAM (Henderson and Venkatraman, 1993) and CMMs (Capability Maturity Model) reach and range concept of (Keen, 1996). Luftmans MM is an endeavour based in six domains (skills/technology scope/partnership/governance/competency measurements/communications) to discover a specific organisations BITA profile. A brief description of each domain follows: Skills: addresses practical human resources issues such as cross-training in IT and business issues regarding the cultural environment and its impact on innovation and organisational change. Technology scope: refers to how much provision of comprehensible and flexible infrastructure comes from IT, the implementation of emergent technologies and IT standards. Partnership: centres on how the perceptions in the relationship and contributions between IT and business sides affect the conduct of effective and efficient management of an organisation. Governance: pertains to the authority accorded to the role of IT and its execution and delivery of activity-supporting resources in the organisation. Competency and value measurement: refers to the accountable value given to the contribution of the IT side to the business side of an organisation. Communication: addresses transparency and comprehension in knowledge sharing and understanding to ensure achievability of stated business and IT strategies and goals. Each domain is then assigned these next five levels of alignment: Initial/ad hoc: is the lowest ranked process of alignment where IT and business are non-aligned and processes for improvement are only ad hoc and random in nature. Committed process level reveals a level of intention how far an organisation has committed itself to the promotion of a global BITA vision. Established focused process level reveals an existing, established BITA process that has a focus on business goals. Improved/managed process level reveals usage of a well-founded BITA process that endorses the acceptance of technology as a value creator for the organisation. Optimised is the highest ranked process of alignment and reveals a fully integrated and co-adaptive strategic BITA process between both IT and business sides in an organisation. [This model will be used by the author in this research to assess the influence of organisational culture in BITA.] 2.5.3 SANCHEZ ORTIZS BITA INSTRUMENT (2003) Sanchez Ortiz (2003) developed a twenty questions based instrument to measure the level of alignment between strategic objectives declared [and shared] by business and IT. The questions are founded on analytical study of the areas in literature offering domains that addressed BITA and the concept of total quality management (Henderson and Venkatraman, 1993; Chan et al., 1997; Bruce, 1998; Luftman et al., 1999; Burn and Szeto, 2000; Creteau and Bergeron, 2001; and Chan, 2001; Kearns and Lederer, 2003). The instrument attempts to definitively measure BITA with due consideration to the areas uncovered by Henderson and Venkatraman (1993), the quality perspective of the MBNQA framework Prybutok et al. (2001) and Chan (2002). The questions in the instrument were designed specifically to parallel some dimensions of the MBNQA: Leadership Strategic Planning Customer and Market Focus Information and Analysis Human Resources â€Å"†¦but reflecting the fit between the priorities and activities of IT with those of the business Sanchez Ortiz (2003, p. 52). Thus the questions would illicit a qualitative attitudinal response and offer levels of agreement with statements of intention. For example, some questions/statement posed direct the respondent to assess suggested purposes of the use of IT ‘to achieve high quality performance, ‘to communicate values and expectations, ‘to support organisational and employee learning, ‘to increase customer/citizen satisfaction, ‘to determine current product/service requirements and ‘to promote cooperation, innovation, and flexibility. To answer the questions, those responding gave ratings on a seven point likert-scale with 1 = ‘strongly disagree to 7 = ‘strongly agree and Not Applicable (N/A) option also included. Sanchez Ortizs BITA instrument has been subsequently amended with input from IT researchers, management , and psychology providing refinements resulting in validation through a pilot assessment conducted in the Denton City Government. However, as it is oriented to single organisations and is only a list of albeit, pertinent and relevant revealing questions, it fails to identify process areas and consequently restricts that particular organisations improvement plan to limited BITA activities and denies it any answers to process and function issues. 2.5.4 COBIT (Control Objectives for Information and Related Technology) COBIT first came to notice with its initial version in 1996 but it appears here according to the chronology with reference to the current (May 2007) version. It was issued by the IT Governance Institute and is a toolset based on business-oriented standards and best practice that organisations can employ for successful delivery of IT against business requirements and measurement of IT processes. â€Å"The business orientation of COBIT consists of linking business goals to IT goals, providing metrics and MMs to measure their achievement, and identifying the associated responsibilities of business and IT process owners Information Systems Audit and Control Association [ISACA] (2006, p.5). Version 4.1 succeeds the earlier version 4.0 with changes to the ‘Goals description making it simpler and including now a cascade of processes and (bidirectional) relations between the ‘IT Processes, the ‘IT Goals and the ‘Business. This comprehensive framework provides e xplicit support in clearly stated points identified by their association with 34 specific naturally grouped areas: Plan and Organise [10 processes] (PO), Acquire and Implement (AI) [7 processes], Deliver and Support (DS) [13 processes] and Monitor and Evaluation (ME) [4 processes] making up the domains. Between them they control applications, information, infrastructure and people with most of the IT resources controlled by process in AI and DS. The table below lists the specific elements of each area. Processes [not illustrated here] are further sub-divided into detailed control objectives [210 contained in COBIT 4.1] Table 2 List of COBIT Framework Areas IT PROCESSES Plan and Organize PO1 Define a Strategic IT Plan and direction PO2 Define the Information Architecture PO3 Determine Technological Direction PO4 Define the IT Processes, Organization and Relationships PO5 Manage the IT Investment PO6 Communicate Management Aims and Direction PO7 Manage IT Human Resources PO8 Manage Quality PO9 Assess and Manage IT Risks PO10 Manage Projects IT PROCESSES Acquire and Implement AI1 Identify Automated Solutions AI2 Acquire and Maintain Application Software AI3 Acquire and Maintain Technology Infrastructure AI4 Enable Operation and Use AI5 Procure IT Resources AI6 Manage Changes AI7 Install and Accredit Solutions and Changes IT PROCESSES Deliver and Support DS1 Define and Manage Service Levels DS2 Manage Third-party Services DS3 Manage Performance and Capacity DS4 Ensure Continuous Service DS5 Ensure Systems Security DS6 Identify and Allocate Costs DS7 Educate and Train Users DS8 Manage Service Desk and Incidents DS9 Manage the Configuration DS10 Manage Problems DS11 Manage Data DS12 Manage the Physical Environment DS13 Manage Operations IT PROCESSES Monitor and Evaluate ME1 Monitor and Evaluate IT Processes ME2 Monitor and Evaluate Internal Control ME3 Ensure Regulatory Compliance ME4 Provide IT Governance COBIT has been successful for many businesses wishing to identify its requirements for the achievement of BITA; key goal indicators, key performance indicators, maturity levels [measurable] and audit guidelines are among the processes employed. COBIT aims to support both management and process owners through IT governance whereby a determination of the level of adherence to the control objectives by either self-assessment or in conjunction with an independent review to establish reference can be easily conducted. The assessment can be placed in context by comparison to the industry and the environment in which they reside, or by comparison to where international standards and regulations are evolving. The detail of COBIT can be overwhelming and counterproductive to its intentions but it is still useful and independent groups however realise the need for navigation information and pointers to where FAQs are answered appropriately and applicably such as the forums led by Debra M allette [CISA Certified Information Systems Auditor] a speaker in joint session with ISACA (ISACA, 2008). 2.6 BARRIERS TO BITA Despite the many variables referred to in the literature cultural barriers are probably among the most difficult to identify, analyse and overcome when introducing new Information Technologies. Organisations can find solutions to most of the technical barriers through different means of support and skill development, but organisational cultural barriers are often invisible, impossible for many to separate from national culture and harder to deal with. Religion is often the foundation for the development of a culture. The kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) epitomises the Arabic Islamic culture because it witnessed the birth of the dominant religion of the region, Islam. It provides a symbol of Islam to the world. KSA also holds the Islamic sacred places for all Muslims across the globe and is viewed by many as the most religious country of Islam. Islam has a strong influence on the people in KSA through Islamic teachings, and this has impacted their way of life and the way things are done (Abdul-Gader, 1999). In addition, KSA has never been occupied or conquered by Western countries, as have many other countries in this region. An important barrier or reluctance may in some measure be due to a lack of available sources for introducing IT systems. There are insufficient IT assets in organisations in different parts of KSA, which limits their ability to implement and introduce new technologies. IT systems are ill-reputed, being widely known for their expensive cost, time-consuming demands, and high rate of failure. Decision makers worldwide are keen to implement new systems, but the lack of certainty and vagueness of successful implementation reduces their enthusiasm (Reinig Mejias, 2003). Another barrier is a lack of BITA awareness possibly because of cultural issues. Without promotion of the benefits and organisations selling the quick wins and showing the consequences of such a strategic alignment between both business and IT strategies, organisations ar e left in a vacuum where progress in line with technological evolution will face arrested development. Part of the lack of awareness might also be tied up in structure and management style coupled with cultural aspects of communications but business and IT objectives and goals should be known and explained to managers and staff through all levels of organisations and any notification of changes in those goals should be exchanged and explained. Lack of skilled personnel is another barrier to BITA that the literature suggests. A workforce containing personnel with IT skill-specific attributes supporting excellent product knowledge in their field in order to manage and implement IT systems successfully is a relevant factor in helping organisations understand the relative ease and potential value of embracing technology (Kelegai Middleton, 2004). Countries with a shortage of skilled IT personnel suffer the business and economic consequences and they very much on foreign expertise, a double-edged sword which brings with it an international cultural dimension that may provide innovative solutions but may also cause conflict within organisations if managed ineffectively. In addition, the absence of reliable quality infrastructure (organisational, and IT) is considered a barrier to BITA. Organisations operating without decent IT infrastructure could face insurmountable financial difficulties [something that can have its reluctance steeped in cultural perception] to introduce and implement completely new systems such as telecommunications systems, Internet, and other hardware as well as the associated costs of the personnel or training required to bring skill levels up to standard. Additionally, organisations without basic organisational infrastructure would have difficulty in achieving its goals. The literature in this field identifies many other barriers that to a greater or lesser extent block progress toward developing or effectively deploying BITA and ha ve been referred to earlier; middle and upper management outlook toward IT; concerns regarding the benefits realised by IT; conflict of politics; tangible benefits/ROI; guaranteeing the meeting of users needs; and trust issues. The literature also specifically points to cultural factors and issues as particularly pertinent elements that may provide barriers to the introduction and implementation of IT (Gefen et al., 2005; Hwang, 2005; Jain Kanungo, 2005; Karahanna et al., 2005; Mann, 2005; Shanks et al., 2000). 2.7 SUMMARY This chapter reviewed a selection of related literature on BITA relevant to this research study sourced from academic publications, industry journals and information on the web. A chronology of BITA history was delivered, BITA definitions presented, and BITA perspectives were given. In addition, BITA models were discussed. Brief explanations of BITA assessment instruments were given. Finally the chapter addressed Barriers to BITA from organisational cultures. Luftmans MM will be used in the current study to assess the indirect influence of organisational culture in KSA; it will assist in evaluating maturity levels of alignment in organisations. Luftmans MM has strong empirical support, which is valid, reliable, and widely cited. This will be used to detect statistically significant effects on BITA with regard to the independent variable of organisational culture. Chapter three explores the literature review for the independent variable considered in this research, namely the organisational culture. References Bergeron, F., Raymond, L. and Rivard, S. (2001). Fit in Strategic Information Technology Management Research: An empirical comparison of perspectives, The International Journal of Management Science 29(2) Burn, J.M. (1996). 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Do supply chain IT alignment and supply chain interfirm system integration impact upon brand equity and firm performance? Journal of Business Research, 59(8):887-895. Sabherwal, R. Chan, Y. E. (2001). Alignment between business and IS strategies: A study of prospectors, analyzers and defenders. IS Research, 12(1):11-33. Sabherwal, R., Hirschheim, R. and Goles, T. (2001). The Dynamics of Alignment: Insights from a punctuated equilibrium model, Organization Science 12(2): 179-197. Wagner, H.T, Weitzel T., Koenig W (2005). Modeling the impact of alignment routines on it performance: An approach to making the resource based view explicit. In HICSS 05: Proceedings of the 38th Annual Hawaii International Conference on Syste m Sciences, pages 230b-230b, Kona, Hawaii, USA. Zhou, H., Collier, D. A., Wilson, D. D. (2008) The relationship of strategic business alignment and enterprise information management in achieving better business performance. Enterprise Information Systems, 2(2):201-220. Weill, P. and Broadbend, M. (1988). Leveraging the new infrastructure. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Porter, M. E. (1996). What is strategy? Harvard Business Review, 74(6), pp. 61-78. Henderson, J. C., Venkatraman, H. (1993). Strategic alignment: Leveraging information technology for transforming organizations. IBM Systems Journal, 32(1) Luftman, J. (1996). Competing in the Information Age: Strategic Alignment in Practice. New York: Oxford University Press. Ciborra, C. U. (1997). De profundis? Deconstructing the concept of strategic alignment. Scandinavian Journal of Information Systems, 9(1), pp. 67-82. Smaczny, T. (2001). Is an alignment between business and information technology the appropriate paradigm to manage IT in todays organisations? Management Decision, 39(10), pp. 797-802. Luftman, J. and Kempaiah, R. (2007a). An update on Business-IT alignment: ‘a line has been drawn. MIS Quarterly Executive, 6(3), pp. 165-177. Chan, Y. E. and Reich, B. H. (2007). IT alignment: What have we learned? Journal of Information Technology, 22(4), pp. 297-315. Chan, Y. E., Sabherwal, R. and Thatcher, J. B. (2006). Antecedents and outcomes of strategic IS alignment: An empirical investigation. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management,53(1), pp. 27-47. Benbya, H. and McKelvey, B. (2006). Using coevolutionary and complexity theories to improve IS alignment: a multi-level approach. Journal of Information Technology, 21, pp. 284-298. Broadbent, M. and Weill, P. (1993). Improving business and information strategy alignment: Learning from the banking industry. IBM Systems Journal, 32(1), pp. 162-179. Reich, B. H. and Benbasat, I. (1996). Measuring the lin kage between business and information technology objectives. MIS Quarterly, 20(1), pp. 55-81. Luftman, J. (2000). Assessing Business-IT Alignment Maturity. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 4(14), pp. 1-51. Hirschheim, R., Sabherwal, R. (2001). Detours in the path toward strategic information systems alignment. California management review, 44(1), pp. 87-108. Kearns, G. S., Lederer, A. L. (2000). The effect of strategic alignment on the use of IS-based resources for competitive advantage. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 9(4), pp. 265-293. Luftman, J., Papp, R., Brier, T. (1999). Enablers and inhibitors of business-IT alignment. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 1(11), pp. 1-33. Baets, W. R. J. (1992). Aligning information systems with business strategy. Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 1(4):205-213. Broadbent, M, Weill, P. (1993). Improving business and information strategy alignment: Lear ning from the banking industry. IBM Systems Journal, 32(1):162-179,. Chan, Y.E., Huff, S.L., Barclay, D.W., Copeland, D.J. (1997)Business strategic orientation, information systems strategic orientation, and strategic alignment. Information Systems Research, 8(2):125-150. Chan, Y.E. (2001). Information Systems Strategy, Structure and Alignment, in R. Papp (ed.) Strategic Information Technology: Opportunities for competitive advantage, 1st edn, Hershey, PA: Idea Group Publishing, pp. 56-81. Luftman, J. N. (2003). Assessing IT-business alignment. Information Systems Management, 20(4):9-15. van der Zee, J. T. M., de Jong, B. (1999). Alignment is not enough: integrating business and information technology management with the balanced business scorecard. Journal of Management Information Systems, 16(2):137-156. Teo, T. S. H., King, E.R. (1997). Integration between business planning and information systems planning: An evolutionary-contingency perspective. Journal of Mana gement Information Systems, 14(1):185-214. Benbya, H., McKelvey, B. (2006). Using coevolutionary and complexity theories to improve IS alignment: A multi-level approach. Journal of Information Technology, 21(4):284-298. Sanchez Ortiz, A. (2003). Testing a model of the relationships among organizational performance, IT-business alignment, and IT governance. PhD thesis, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA. Reich, B. H., Benbasat, I. (1996). Development of measures to investigate the linkage between business and information technology objectives. MIS Quarterly, 20(1):55-81. Baets, W. R. J. (1996). Some empirical evidence on IS strategy alignment in banking. Information and Management, 30(4):155-177. Luftman, J. N., Papp, R., Brier, T. (1999). Enablers and inhibitors of business-IT alignment. Communications of the AIS. Maes, R., Dirksen, V., Truijens O. (2000). Redefining business-IT alignment, University of Amsterdam. Working research. Duffy, J. (2001 ). Maturity models: Blueprints for e-volution. Strategic and Leadership, 29(6):19-26. Rondinelli, D., Rosen, B., Drori, I. (2001). The struggle for strategic alignment in multinational corporations: Managing readjustment during global expansion. European Management Journal, 19(4):404-416. Moody, K. W. (2003). New meaning to IT alignment. Information Systems Management, 20(4):30-35. Senn, A. (2004). Re-align: Tackling business and IT alignment. CIO Advertising Supplement, Deloitte Development LLC. Galliers, R. D. (2007). On confronting some common myths of IS strategy discourse. In Mansell, R., Avgerou, C., Quah, D. editors, The Oxford Handbook of Information and Communication Technologies, pages 225-243. Oxford University Press, New York, NY, USA. Seggie, S. H., Kim, D., Cavusgil, S. (2006). Do supply chain IT alignment and supply chain interfirm system integration impact upon brand equity and firm performance? Journal of Business Research, 59(8):887-895. Tavako lian, H. (1989). Linking the Information Technology Structure with Organizational Competitive Strategy: A survey, MIS Quarterly 13(3): 309-317. Venkatraman, V. (1989). The concept of fit in strategy research: Toward verbal and statistical correspondence. The Academy of Management Review, 14(3):423-444. Wagner, H.T, Weitzel, T., Koenig, W. (2005). Modeling the impact of alignment routines on it performance: An approach to making the resource based view explicit. In HICSS 05: Proceedings of the 38th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, pages 230b-230b, Kona, Hawaii, USA. Zhou, H., Collier, D. A., Wilson, D. D. (2008). The relationship of strategic business alignment and enterprise information management in achieving better business performance. Enterprise Information Systems, 2(2):201-220. Tallon, P. P., Kraemer, K. L. (2003). Investigating the relationship between strategic alignment and IT business value: The discovery of a paradox. In N. Shin, e ditor, Creating business value with information technology: Challenges and solutions, pages 1-22. IGI Publishing, Hershey, PA, USA. Chan, Y. E. (2002). Why havent we mastered alignment? the importance of the informal organization structure. 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Technology And The Dark Web - 936 Words

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As with many events and activities being related to the creation of technology, a few different aspects of it can be tied back to the government. In this case, the Dark Web may be directly related to the, â€Å"creation of ‘Onion Routing’ by the United States Naval Research Laboratory, which was the first step toward the Tor Project.† Nevertheless, this was only the first step to be taken in the greater evolution of the Dark Web, for instance the creation of Freenet which was developed by Ian Clarke allowed more individual to access this otherwise unknown area of the web. By opening this area of theShow MoreRelatedThe Internet And The Dark Web1329 Words   |  6 Pageslaw a decision by Congress to overturn new privacy rules for Internet Service Providers (ISP). This means that US ISPs will soon no longer need consent from users to share browsing history with marketers and other third parties. What is the Dark Web? 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Creating High Quality Experiences For Young Children

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American Oil Dependence Essay - 1667 Words

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